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5 Maritime Autonomy for Ferries
5.1 MASS definitions and levels of autonomy
The IMO defines MASS as ships that, to varying degrees, can operate independent of human interaction. DNV's AROS class notation family, effective from 2025, structures autonomy in terms of functional categories, modes of operation, and control locations. For ferries, the operationally attractive regime is "supervised autonomy."
5.2 Autonomy technology stack
Sensing and perception
Redundant GNSS (often RTK), IMUs, speed logs, gyrocompasses, day/night cameras, thermal cameras, and increasingly lidar. Multi-sensor fusion supports detection of small craft and obstacles.
Decision-making and control
For ferries, the nominal track is fixed, but the system must handle deviations for collision avoidance, weather, and berth availability. Auto-crossing maintains track and speed across the fjord. Auto-docking solves a constrained manoeuvring problem near the berth.
A critical component is the "COLREGs engine" that ensures the vessel's decisions respect the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea.
Supervisory control and health management
Continuous monitoring of system health, fault detection and isolation, and predefined degraded modes.
Cybersecurity and communications
Secure, redundant data links (fibre + 4G/5G + radio backup) are essential for remote supervision. Cyber risk is heightened by the combination of critical safety functions, shore charging, and remote control.
5.3 Autonomy in practice
- milliAmpere2: 8.6-metre urban ferry in Trondheim, certified for 12 passengers. Autonomous navigation, collision avoidance, and remote control via shore control lab. Public trials showed the importance of user acceptance.
- Zeam / MF Estelle: World's first commercial emission-free autonomous passenger ferry in a capital city. Demonstrates the transition from pilot to commercial service.
- Towards large Ro-Pax: The Lavik-Oppedal ferries will be significantly larger. Redundancy requirements are higher, the safety case must be more extensive, and automatic vehicle loading introduces additional failure modes.